Traffic congestion is a common problem in developing countries including Indonesia, especially in dense urban areas such as Bandung City. This study analyzes the potential for the implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) on Jl. Soekarno Hatta (Gedebage Intersection - Cibiru Roundabout), Bandung City. Traffic characteristics show a Saturation Degree (DJ) value of 0.85 in the morning and afternoon and 0.75 in the afternoon, with Level of Service (LoS) E and D. Congestion costs reach Rp 47,710,714 (morning), Rp 55,759,813 (afternoon), and Rp 75,905,411 (afternoon) per hour. The results show that the implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system can reduce the use of private vehicles and increase the efficiency of congestion costs. Thus, the Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system is a relevant travel demand management strategy in urban areas of Indonesia.
Congestion is one of the traffic problems faced by developing countries such as Indonesia and is common in dense urban areas (Akhmad Hermawan & Haryatiningsih, 2022). This congestion has become part of the characteristics of a particular urban center area due to its regular occurrence especially at certain times such as office departure hours, work return hours, weekends and holidays (Akhmad Hermawan & Haryatiningsih, 2022).
One of the problems that is often experienced today is traffic
congestion in Bandung City (Dewi et al., 2020). Bandung is the most
congested city in Indonesia, even beating other big cities such as
Surabaya and Jakarta (Akhmad Hermawan & Haryatiningsih, 2022b).
Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) of West
Java Province, the population of Bandung City in 2024 reached 2.528
million people. Bandung is nicknamed the
As is known in big cities, traffic conditions on Jl. Soekarno Hatta (Gedebage Intersection - Cibiru Roundabout) in Bandung are still poor with high levels of congestion and inadequate road sections, including parking problems and high air pollution. The rapid population and economic growth in Bandung City has led to an increase in both two-wheeled and four-wheeled vehicles. The increase in vehicle ownership is not matched by limited road infrastructure, causing traffic congestion on national roads in Bandung City, such as Jl. Soekarno Hatta (Gedebage Intersection - Cibiru Roundabout) Bandung City.
To reduce the proportion of ownership and use of private vehicles, one of which must be improved is by improving public transportation services, as well as the appropriate level of safety and comfort of travel. In addition to improving public transport services, several steps need to be taken to encourage the reduction of private car users, namely the implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) for congestion control (Nomleni, 2019). The Electronic Road Pricing system has been implemented in several countries on certain roads.
Electronic Road Pricing is a paid road system that is applied
electronically on a road section for each vehicle that passes
through it (Adilah et al., 2020). Electronic Road Pricing (ERP)
System is the implementation of
According to Tamin (1997) transportation is one of the supporting aspects of the nation's progress, especially in the economic activities of the State which cannot be separated from the influence of population growth. One of the easiest means of transportation at this time to obtain and use is public transportation (Said et al., n.d.) and consumer preferences for goods produced are factors that have an influence on Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) (Amifudin & Anggraini, n.d.).
The role of transportation is the activity of transporting or moving cargo (goods and passengers) from one place to another, which is very vital for the economy and development as well as supporting facilities for the development and growth of other sectors and reducing Carbon Dioxide emissions CO2 (Jurnal Moda Transportasi Darat Dan Kualitas Layanan Jasa Terhadap Kelancaran Arus Container Di Depo, N.D.). In addition, one of the most popular and frequently used means of transportation today is public transportation (Said et al., n.d.).
A road is a man-made physical form used to facilitate the movement of people and goods in a relatively shorter time. Therefore, the road must be planned and designed to be able to provide optimal service for its users (Hasibuan, n.d.). Zudhyirawan (2017) says the role of roads is part of the transportation infrastructure which has an important role in the economic, socio- cultural, environmental, political, defense and security fields, and is also used for the greatest prosperity of the people.
Fambella in Al Adilah et al, (2014) said that road geometrics are roads that physically have a function as a determinant of comfort and safety levels (AlβAdilah et al., 2021). Well-designed road geometrics also support driving comfort for users. This includes consideration of road surface slope, proper elevation settings, and smooth traffic movement (Lutfie, n.d.).
Traffic in Law No. 22 of 2009 is defined as the movement of
vehicles and people in road traffic space, while what is meant by
road traffic space is infrastructure intended for the movement of
vehicles, people, and/or goods in the form of roads and supporting
facilities (
Talking about traffic and road transportation is inseparable
from congestion and it cannot be denied that congestion occurs not
only in big cities but even small cities have congestion
(
Traffic management is the process of regulating and controlling traffic flow by optimizing the use of the existing road system to meet transportation needs efficiently, orderly, safely, and smoothly without the need for additional new infrastructure. The objectives of traffic management include improving the
efficiency of movement, road user safety, and protection of environmental conditions around the road (Sudini, 2021).
Travel demand management (TDM) is a series of strategies, policies, and actions designed to manage travel demand in a region. One of its objectives is to reduce congestion and move toward a sustainable transport system policy (Pratama et al., 2022).
Generally, Travel Demand Management (TDM) encourages people to reduce unnecessary travel (especially for those using private vehicles) and encourages people to use other modes of transportation (Pratama et al., 2022). An example of a strategy or policy for implementing Travel Demand Management (TDM) is Electronic Road Pricing (ERP).
Electronic Road Pricing is an electronic toll system applied to a specific road section for every vehicle passing through it (Adilah et al., 2020). Its purpose is to prevent traffic congestion. The Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system is similar to those in other countries such as the United Kingdom, Sweden, Italy, Hong Kong, and Singapore, which have successfully implemented the ERP system in controlling traffic congestion (Hamzah & Kurniawan, n.d.).
If the Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system is implemented, drivers will face several options, such as paying a fee for the journey, adjusting the travel time to get a lower rate, choosing another route or mode of transportation, changing the destination, or even canceling the trip.
Various previous studies have discussed the effectiveness and challenges of ERP implementation. Menon (2004) found that ERP implementation in Singapore successfully reduced vehicle volume by 13% and increased average vehicle speed by 20%. Meanwhile, Santos (2005) in his study in London stated that congestion pricing contributed significantly to reducing congestion and carbon emissions in the city center.
In Indonesia, several studies have also been conducted. Putra et al. (2018) analyzed the potential of ERP implementation in Jakarta and concluded that although it is technically possible, there are still challenges in legal aspects, infrastructure readiness, and public acceptance. Handayani and Pratama (2021) conducted a study of public perceptions of ERP and found that the fairness of tariffs and transparency in the use of funds were the main concerns of the public.
Figure 1. Thinking Framework
Figure 2. Research Flowchart
From the picture above, this research uses quantitative methods to analyze the effect of congestion cost efficiency and vehicle operating costs on the level of congestion. This research was conducted in Bandung City, West Java Province using secondary data in the form of Bandung City Average Daily Traffic Data in 2024, Bandung City average vehicle speed data in 2024, Bandung City Road geometric data, Bandung City 2024 population data, Bandung City 2024 GRDP data and Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) Tariff Plan. Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics 2025, the population of the city of Bandung amounted to 2.528.163 people, with the calculation of the slovin formula obtained a research sample of 100 respondents. Using binary logistic analysis with the help of SPSS software.
To comprehensively analyze traffic characteristics, the actual capacity of the road needs to be calculated using the Capacity Calculation formula, then combined with the degree of saturation values to determine the periods of heavy traffic in the morning, afternoon, and evening while estimating the potential loss of service.
Capacity
C = πΆ0 Γ πΉπΆπΏπ½ Γ πΉπΆππ΄ Γ πΉπΆπ»π Γ πΉπΆππΎ
C = 13600 x 0.92 x 1 x 0.88 x 1 = 11011
Degree of Saturation
DJ =
DJ =
q
c
3019
11011
DJ = 0,27
Table 1. LoS (Level Of Service) Soekarno Hatta Road V/C RATIO Level Of Service
| V/C RATIO | Level Of Service | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Morning | Day | Afternoon | Morning | Noon | Afternoon |
| 0,85 | 0,75 | 0,85 | E | D | E |
Based on Graph 1, below, the results of the analysis show that the LoS (Level of Service) level on Jl. Soekarno Hatta (Gedebage Intersection - Cibiru Roundabout) is E in the morning, D in the afternoon, and E in the afternoon, with values between 0.75 and 0.85. This indicates that the traffic flow is almost unstable, where vehicle speeds begin to be disrupted and decrease due to insufficient road capacity.
Time value
π =
2080
= 0.0707 Rupiah/Hour
Waiting Time
T = ππe β ππ i
T = 0,058 β 0,054
T = 0,004/hour
| Road Name | Road Length (Km) | Normal (Ideal) | Traffic Jam (Existing) | Delay (T) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Speed Km/h | Travel Time | Speed Km/h | Travel Time | |||
| Soekarno Hatta (Morning) | 2,69 | 50 | 0,054 | 46,3 | 0,058 | 0,004 |
| Soekarno Hatta (Afternoon) | 2,69 | 50 | 0,054 | 45,6 | 0,059 | 0,005 |
| Soekarno Hatta (Afternoon) | 2,69 | 50 | 0,054 | 44,6 | 0,060 | 0,007 |
| Soekarno Hatta (Average) | 2,69 | 50 | 0,054 | 45,50 | 0,059 | 0,005 |
Vehicle Operating Cost
BOK = BT + BTT
Table 3. Vehicle Operating Costs
| Vehicle Type | BT (Rp/km) | BTT (Rp/km) | BOK (Rp/km) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Car/Passenger Vehicle | Rp2,979 | IDR2,722 | Rp5,702 |
| Utility/Purpose Vehicle | Rp2,728 | Rp2,893 | Rp5,621 |
| Small Bus | Rp6,433 | Rp6,756 | Rp13,189 |
| Large Bus | Rp7,840 | Rp6,841 | Rp14,681 |
| Light Truck/Light Truck | Rp3,764 | Rp4,879 | Rp8,643 |
| Medium Heavy Truck/Truck | Rp6,485 | Rp6,430 | Rp12,915 |
| Heavy Truck/Truck | Rp8,747 | Rp9,893 | Rp18,640 |
| Total | Rp79,391 | ||
Figure 4. Non-fixed and fixed costs
Figure 5. Vehicle Operational Costs
Congestion Cost
A β²
C = N [ GA + (1 β
) V ] T
B
= 3019[ 79390,54 x 46,3 + (1 β 46,3) 0,0707] 0.0004
50
= IDR 47,710,714 / Hour
Figure 6. Congestion Cost Calculation
Based on Figure 6, the highest congestion cost occurs in the afternoon on Soekarno Hatta Road, where the average speed is only 17.8 km/hour. The last step is to analyze the cost efficiency due to congestion through questionnaires that have been distributed to the specified sample, with indicators of travel frequency and continuity of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) implementation costs. To determine the opportunity for road user shifting as well as the tariff sensitivity of the Electronic Road Pricing (ERP), this analysis is conducted using binary logistic regression in SPSS application, and the results are processed with the SPSS Data Processing formula to determine the chances of road user switching.
Table 4. SPSS Analysis Results
| Variables in the Equation | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | S.E. | Wald | df | Sig. | Exp(B) | ||
| Step 1a | FREQUENCY | .943 | .616 | 2.345 | 1 | .126 | 2.567 |
| FARE1 | 4.093 | .989 | 17.113 | 1 | .000 | 59.918 | |
| FARE2 | 19.882 | 14041.630 | .000 | 1 | .999 | 431188290.229 | |
| FARE3 | .504 | 42575.129 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | 1.656 | |
| FARE4 | -15.663 | 40192.962 | .000 | 1 | 1.000 | .000 | |
| Constant | -7.425 | 2.503 | 8.802 | 1 | .003 | .001 | |
Based on SPSS calculations, the results show that Tariff 1 H2 (Rp.5,000 - Rp.15,000) has a high number of responses, which means that it has a partial effect compared to tariffs 2, 3 and 4. Testing criteria, if the Sig value <0.05 concludes that it has a partial effect.
The Travel Frequency variable has a Sig value of 0.126, concluding that Travel Frequency has no partial effect (H1 is rejected).
The variable Fare Rp 5,000 - Rp15,000 has a Sig value of 0.000,
concluding that the Fare Rp 5,000 - Rp15,000 has a
The variable tariff of IDR 5,000 - IDR 20,000 has a Sig value of 0.999, concluding that the tariff of IDR 5,000 - IDR 20,000 has no partial effect (H3 is rejected).
The variable tariff of IDR 5,000 - IDR 25,000 has a Sig value of 1.000, concluding that the tariff of IDR 5,000 - IDR 25,000 has no partial effect (H4 is rejected).
The tariff variable of IDR 5,000 - IDR 30,000 has a Sig value of 1.000, concluding that the tariff of IDR 5,000 - IDR 30,000 has no partial effect (H5 is rejected).
Based on the Variables in the Equation table, to determine the estimated probability of road user switching, a statistical approach using binary logistic regression can be used with the general logistic regression model with a significance value of <0.05 as follows:
Congestion Cost Efficiency
exp(π½0+π½1π₯)
π(π₯) = 1 + exp(π½0+π½1π₯)
= exp(β7,425+4,093(1))
1+ exp(β7,425+4,093(1))
P(a) = n(A)
n(S)
48
= 100 = 0,48
n = P(a) x π(π₯)
= 0,34
= 0,48 x 0,34 = 0,16 = 16%
Figure 7: Congestion Cost Efficiency
Based on the analysis of the traffic study on Jl. Soekarno Hatta (Gedebage Intersection - Cibiru Roundabout) Bandung City, it was found that the Degree of Saturation (DJ) reached high levels in the morning and afternoon, and slightly lower during the day. The LoS (Level of Service) recorded was E in the morning and afternoon, and D in the afternoon, reflecting severe congestion and reduced vehicle speeds. The significant congestion costs indicate an opportunity to improve efficiency through the implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP). Technological infrastructure development, public education, clear regulations, and collaboration between the government and private sector are required for successful and effective Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) implementation.
Based on the results of the traffic research analysis on Jl. Soekarno Hatta (Gedebage Intersection - Cibiru Roundabout) Bandung City shows that the Degree of Saturation (DJ) reached 0.85 in the morning and afternoon, and 0.75 in the afternoon. The LoS (Level of Service) recorded is E in the morning and afternoon, and D in the afternoon, reflecting the condition of congestion and long queues that cause vehicle speeds to decrease dramatically, even up to 0 km / hr. Based on the calculation of the degree of saturation simulation after the implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP), the value of traffic flow used is 0.48 smp/hour, while the road capacity at the research location is 11011 smp/hour. From the data, the degree of saturation (DS) value is 0.13 in the morning, 0.12 in the afternoon, and 0.14 in the afternoon. which if classified based on the Indonesian Road Capacity Guidelines (PKJI) 2023, is included in category A or very smooth. The resulting congestion costs are Rp 47,710,714 per hour in the morning, Rp 55,759,813 per hour in the afternoon, and Rp 75,905,411 per hour in the afternoon. In addition, the congestion cost efficiency based on road user displacement shows a value of Rp 7,633,714 per hour in the morning, Rp 8,921,570 per hour in the afternoon, and Rp 2,144,866 per hour in the afternoon. There is an opportunity to improve the efficiency of congestion costs by fulfilling various supporting aspects in the implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) in Bandung City. The implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) requires the development of strong technological infrastructure, public education, and clear regulations and policies. In addition, close supervision and collaboration between the government, private sector, and related agencies are critical to the success of the system. Evaluation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) performance after implementation is also needed to ensure effectiveness and consider social and economic impacts on the community.
The implementation of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) in Bandung City needs to focus on the use of advanced technology to ensure the success of the system. In-depth studies on technological infrastructure, such as traffic sensors and artificial intelligence-based applications, are essential to efficiently analyze travel patterns. In addition, public education should be a priority to explain the
benefits of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) and how technology can improve user experience. Research also needs to explore supportive regulations and policies, as well as effective monitoring mechanisms to prevent abuse. Collaboration between the government, private sector, and relevant agencies should be enhanced to create synergy in ERP implementation. Evaluation of the social and economic impacts of Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) implementation also needs to be conducted periodically to assess the effectiveness of the system and make necessary adjustments for the benefit of society.
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all those who have contributed to this research. Thank you to our parents and supervisors who have provided valuable direction and guidance, as well as to colleagues who have provided support and input during the research process. We also appreciate the participation of respondents who have taken the time to contribute to data collection. In addition, we are grateful to the institutions and organizations that have provided the necessary resources and facilities. Hopefully, this research can provide benefits and positive contributions to the development of science and society.