Code switching is a major subject in the field of sociolinguistics focusing on the switch of language amongst bilingual or multilingual communities. This subject has been considered as one of phenomena explaining the usage of a lot of languages in social context (Fachriyah, 2017). Bilingualism takes possession to be described as comprehending two languages (Valdez & Figueora, 1994). In the community of bilingualism, Fachriyah (2017) expounds that the bilingual speakers possess a tendency to switch languages in conversations they discuss. This includes language learning or acquiring a foreign/second language.

The code switching’s occurrences can also be found in a foreign language’s teaching-learning setting, specifically English language class (Yusuf, 2009). According to Jamshidi & Navehebrahim (2013), code switching has the purpose to help students with communication problems in language learning class, especially EFL (or ESL). As mentioned by the two theories of language acquisition in class, the ESL class can do code-switching in an online class setting.

The internet development has changed the setting of learning activity from traditional face-to-face to online (Lasnumanda & Tarigan, 2020). In the context of English learning, online learning is considered more comfortable and helpful. However, the phenomenon of code-switching can be inseparable with any setting of language learning even though the innovation of situational setting in learning English has evolved to be online. Hence, code-switching could happen in online settings as some of the studies have proven that.

On the other hand, the latest study, by Pratama. (2022), shows about the types and functions in code-switching in online English pragmatics class. The study specifically aimed to demonstrate the learning-teaching processes in a senior high school during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing only on how bilingual interaction is conducted in English classes using certain online video streaming and meeting platforms. In this research, the writer also illustrates the circumstances that compelled everyone to be adept in code-switching and code- mixing when necessary. Thus, this research conversely differs from the cited study, providing data of the participants with older age range and more diverse backgrounds, on top of that, the discourse revolving around Spanish-English realms.

There are some, or even few, studies about code-switching in online settings as found in accord with the availability. Idana (2021) finds that there are acts of code-switching in online class. In the study, she focuses on seeking for the types and functions that EFL teachers code-switches in Junior High School during the COVID-19. The researcher found that intersentential-switching was the most dominant code-switching type among the other three. It happened because mostly the code-switching practised by the teachers occurs after the complete sentence or at either clause or between the sentences in one language. The language that switched to Bahasa Indonesia in the teachers’ utterances mostly occurred in different clauses or sentences within the English sentence.

EFL online learning. The study was conducted in a college environment in the Philippines, illustrating three different code-switching types which were used during the classes in English Language Studies, with tag-switching emerging as

the most frequent in the practices, followed by intra-sentential and intersentential. Along with the types, the study also expounded mostly positive effects of code- switching, which positively scaled up the students’ thinking ability and confidence in comprehending complex ideas in English. Presently, this research altered to the referenced study by Pontillas, giving further analysis on how different code-switching functions are held and applied in online English class by grown students with professional backgrounds.

Since only few studies have successfully been found in accordance with the studies of code-switching in online learning, this study explores the analysis of functions in code-switching in the ESL online class. However, As other studies are found focusing on the (junior) high school students and university students, the subject that the study focuses on is mainly on adult Spanish-speaking learners in Spain. In this regard, the study remains a distinct academic work since it analyses different participants with different academic backgrounds. At this point they enroll in the ESL class in an online institution based in Indonesia. In accordance with the analysis of what language is involved, the study is totally different from the previous study mentioned since the respondents only speak Spanish and English. The current study fills a gap by examining code-switching specifically among adult Spanish-speaking learners in an online ESL class setting. Unlike prior research, the focus here is on Spanish-English switching, offering a distinct linguistic perspective.

Sinaga & Hutahaean (2020) narrates that the condition of code switching happens when a language speaker switches from one language to another. In addition, Ohia (2023) traces that this behavioral act of switching a language occurs in a bilingual setting. Bloomfield (1935) defines that bilingualism represents capability of speaking two languages or having native-leveled of two languages.

Code switching’s occurrences are prevalent in a foreign language teaching-learning settings, specifically English language classes. Fachriyah (2017) images that code switching emerges in English classes, and the switching possesses various kinds of languages. Further, Yusuf (2009) states that the phenomenon of code-switching depends on different circumstances, backgrounds, and reasons. On the other hand, Heller (2007) narrates that this code-switching strategy has involvement in using styles of language either to strengthen or weaken different types of communication. These include: request, refusal, topic changes, descriptions, comments, confirmations, etc. These types solidify the use of code-switching in terms of its functions.

The study investigated the phenomenon of code-switching in terms of the functions in EFL online class. To this extent, the study applied to qualitative study provided by Creswell and Creswell (2023). In this case, field note-taking was decided to scrutinize the code-switching phenomenon through qualitative observation. The reason behind was that recordings were not allowed therefore

the transcription could be allowed through manual note-taking. At this point, the researchers joined in as a part of a complete participation observation in which they possess double roles as both teachers and observers. To collect data, there were two adult Spanish-speaking learners included in two disparate one- on-one online classes. Consequently, the classes were conducted in full English with Spanish-English switching. The data collection is further elaborated below. As data were obtained from the notes, the researchers initiated the data collection by doing online teaching activities. Once the code-switching was found, the researchers took notes on a document app by typing the utterances. Afterwards, as the whole activities were recorded in textual data, codification was conducted through numbering the data starting from 1. In this case, the numeration started from 1 and followed the order in which the functions of code- switching were identified, hence this study arranged the framework structure based on the sequence in which data emerged. In terms of linguistic features, since there were only two languages found (Spanish and English), the utterances/structures in Spanish were italic, while English structures remained in normal texts. In addition to considering the privacy that they concern, the names of participants were abbreviated reversibly (G.E. and L.M.) and marked

with Ln. (learner) 1 (for G.E.) and Ln. (learner) 2 (L.M.) in the data result part.

The data analysis was conducted by implementing descriptive discourse analysis. At this point, the researchers preferred Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (1995) by adapting the theory to focus only on two dimensional frameworks: text analysis and discursive practices. Text analysis was to purposefully explore the linguistic features of code-switching. Meanwhile, discursive practices were applied to determine the functions of code-switching used by the speakers in context. Specifically, this study drew the analysis on the frameworks of code-switching’s functions proposed by Tajudin (2013) and Uys and van Dulm (2011). However, due to overlapping functions observed in the two studies, these frameworks were modified. Therefore, the adapted frameworks included: (1) Specific topic of conversation; (2) Quotation; (3) Emphatic expression; (4) Interjection; (5) Clarification in teaching-learning situations; (6) Communicative efficiency for interpreting materials; (7) Encouraging participation; and (8) Expressing identity as a social function.

This section provides the results of the code-switching functions. In addition, the functions would be provided in data formed in conversational sentences; the code-switching happened in 2 languages: English and Spanish (italicized). As the data drawn, Ln. 1 refers to Learner 1, Ln. 2 referred to Learner 2, and Tr. referred to the teacher.

This study reveals multifaceted functions of code-switching among adult Spanish-speaking learners in an online ESL context. Through descriptive discourse analysis, five prominent functions emerged: (1) Specific topic of conversation, where learners resorted to Spanish to express culturally embedded concepts like Papá Noel and Reyes Magos before locating their English equivalents;

switching languages mid-utterance without disrupting instructional flow; (4) Encouragement of participation, where the teacher used translation and gentle corrections to sustain learners’ engagement and elicit their responses; (5) Expression of identity, evident in learners’ reference to cultural holidays and traditions that reinforced belonging while navigating second-language discourse. Together, these functions reflect a dynamic, socially embedded learning environment where code-switching serves both pedagogical and personal purposes.

Building upon these findings, the present discussion connects each observed function with relevant theoretical frameworks and prior research. The emergence of cultural markers such as Papá Noel and Reyes Magos not only exemplifies topic specificity but also illustrates identity expression—a dual

function recognized by Tajudin (2013) and Rahayu et al. (2021). In these moments, learners affirm the distinctiveness of Spanish traditions while engaging in linguistic negotiation. In relation to Spanish culture, the definition of Papá Noel is described as a bearded old man with a red suit on and gifts which is similar to Santa Claus (Cambridge Spanish-English Dictionary, 2014). Meanwhile, Reyes Magos is the Spanish Christmas tradition celebrated on every January 6th which tells about The Three Wise Men or The Three Kings who are more considerably believed to give the presents to children (Hudec, 2020).

As the research discussion proposed by Kasim, Yusuf, and Ningsih (2021) and Gumperz (1982), clarification in teaching situations is defined as clarifying some of the elements of discourse topics, which are discussed by re-explaining them bilingually. Likewise, clarification and repetition—observed when learners switched between Spanish and English terms like espera/wait and esta/this—serve as linguistic anchors. These practices echo the findings of Kasim, Yusuf, and Ningsih (2019), who emphasize that reiteration and clarification enhance comprehension and help avoid miscommunication in multilingual classrooms. In conclusion, the two learners attempt to repeat and then to clarify what they say about some topics of conversation in the two languages. This supports the theory of Tajudin (2013), as also mentioned in the previous studies (Kasim, Yusuf, & Ningsih, 2021; Gumperz, 1982; Mohamad, 2022; Moore, 2010). To this extent, the frequent use of Spanish words appears more dominantly in switching the elements (words or phrases) of English conversation before the learners switch the words/phrases back.

Moreover, communicative efficiency appeared frequently, particularly when learners encountered language barriers and responded with spontaneous switches—as in el crochet to “knitwear” or como se dice de ordenador to “computer.” These instances show how switching helps preserve fluency and instructional momentum, aligning with Uys and van Dulm’s (2011) perspective on pragmatic pedagogical strategies. Participation encouragement followed similar contours: learners were engaged through reformulated prompts, and teacher scaffolding helped guide learners from approximate phrases (tranquila music, libraria) to precise English expressions (relaxing music, bookshelf). These exchanges show how code-switching not only maintains attention but builds confidence in learners as they navigate L2 discourse.

This study is similar to Uys and van Dulm (2011) as Nurhamidah, Fauziati, and Supriyadi (2018) also discuss that two languages can bring the two options of ideas from two languages. In this way, the teacher possesses basic ability to comprehend some of vocabulary comprehension in Spanish as he sometimes uses translation machines as well to help the Spanish learners. Due to the ability of the Spanish’s first language that the teacher has, this helps him to find alternative ways to teach the students by translating as a strategy of language learning use as discussed afterwards.

Therefore, this result’s finding supports the term of functions proposed by Tajudin (2013) and some parts of translation used in teaching Samardali and Ismael (2017): elaborating the definition of new words and phrases and improving structure in relation to L1 interference errors. Samardali and Ismael

(2017) states that the functions of translation are: enlightening about grammatical issues, teaching idioms, determining passages, and checking students’ understanding in reading and listening skills.

This study supports the theory findings by Tajudin (2013). It also stands for the findings of Rahayu, et al. (2021) which they discuss about speakers’ attitude in utterance to say some Arabic words/phrases in order to reveal their Islamic identity.

Taken together, these five functions underline the adaptive power of code- switching in bilingual instruction. They move beyond surface-level translation and reveal deeper cognitive, cultural, and pedagogical strategies used by learners and teachers alike in navigating multilingual meaning-making.

This study offers a comprehensive insight into the functional dimensions of code-switching among adult Spanish-speaking learners in an online ESL environment. Drawing on qualitative observation and discourse analysis, eight key functions emerged: specific topic of conversation, clarification and repetition, communicative efficiency, translation strategy use, participation encouragement, expression of identity, interjection, and quotation. These findings reaffirm the pedagogical and sociolinguistic significance of code-switching—not as a sign of linguistic deficiency but as a purposeful tool that enriches communication, sustains learner engagement, and validates cultural narratives in second- language acquisition.

Learners navigated unfamiliar vocabulary and complex content by leveraging both Spanish and English, often switching mid-utterance to clarify meaning or regain fluency. Teachers played a central role in shaping this bilingual interaction, using translation and reformulation to scaffold understanding and encourage participation. The learners’ references to culturally embedded expressions—like Papá Noel, Reyes Magos, and madera—not only served functional clarity but also reflected an underlying pride and linguistic identity. These expressions highlight how code-switching facilitates emotional and cognitive connection, even across digital borders.

Given these findings, several recommendations are proposed:

Ultimately, this study affirms that code-switching is not merely a communicative workaround—it is a reflection of learner agency, cognitive adaptability, and cultural voice. In bilingual instruction, especially online, its thoughtful integration can flourish both pedagogical rigor and personal resonance.

While this study provides valuable insights into the functions of code- switching in online ESL commands, certain limitations must be considered. First, the sample size was limited to only two adult Spanish students, which constrains the generalizability of the findings. The one-on-one class formats, even though rich in data, may not reflect larger learning settings. In addition, the data collected was done manually due to unavailability of reading permits. These limitations constrain elaboration of subtle details such as tone, intonations, and spontaneous verbal response, which are critical in discourse analysis.

Another limitation lies in the narrow focus of this study, as it is restricted to the Spanish-English linguistic scope. This restriction hardly causes the study to gain more linguistic exposure, especially when it comes to multilingual settings. Furthermore, the researchers’ double roles as a teacher and observer may appeal to subjectivity despite the tendency to maintain objectivity in the note-taking and analysis.

Given these limitations, future research could expand the participant pool, with more varied language backgrounds and proficiency in order to better capture the broader uses of code-switching practices. On top of that, gaining permission to video or audio record would ensure a deeper insight into how learners’ profiles influence code-switching behavior during participation in wider language learning settings.